ALEXANDRIA
HISTORY |
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The history of Alexandria covers four periods:
The Ptolemaic era which starts with the founding of the city and ends with
the arrival of the Romans (blue).
The Roman era from 80 BC until the arrival of the Arabs in 641 (green).
The Arab city from 641 until 1798 when Napolean arrived (yellow).
The modern city from 1798 (red).
Foundation
Alexandria was founded by Alexander the Great in 334 BC (the exact date is
disputed). Alexander's chief architect for the project was Deinocrates of
Rhodes. |
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Ancient accounts are extremely numerous and varied, and much
influenced by subsequent developments. One of the more sober descriptions,
given by the historian Arrian, tells how Alexander undertook to lay out the
city's general plan, but lacking chalk or other means, resorted to sketching
it out with grain. Alexander's seers, and in particular Aristander of
Telmessus, interpreted this as an omen that the city would prosper,
particularly in grain. Other authors make the omen not the grain itself, but
the arrival of flocks of birds to eat it. In any case, the story explains
Alexandria's role as the shipping-point for Egyptian grain, which fed the
Hellenistic and Roman world.
A number of the more fantastic foundation myths are found in the Alexander
Romance, and were picked up by Medieval Arab historians. The 14th century
Arab historian Ibn Khaldun ridiculed one where sea-monsters prevent the
foundation, but are thwarted when Alexander descends in a glass box, and
armed with exact knowledge of their appearance, erects metal efigies on the
beach which succeed in frightening the monsters away.
Alexandria was intended to supersede Naucratis as a Greek centre in Egypt,
and to be the link between Macedonia and the rich Nile Valley. If such a
city was to be on the Egyptian coast, there was only one possible site,
behind the screen of the Pharos island and removed from the silt thrown out
by Nile mouths. An Egyptian townlet, Rhacotis, already stood on the shore
and was a resort of fishermen and pirates. Behind it there were five native
villages scattered along the strip between Lake Mareotis and the sea,
according to a history of Alexander attributed to the author known as pseudo-Callisthenes.
A few months after the foundation, Alexander left Egypt for the East and
never returned to his city. His general, Ptolemy (later Ptolemy I of Egypt)
suceeded in bringing Alexander's body to Alexandria, where it became a
famous tourist destination for ancient travellers.
After Alexander departed, his viceroy, Cleomenes, continued the creation of
Alexandria. The Heptastadion, however, and the mainland quarters seem to
have been mainly Ptolemaic work. Inheriting the trade of ruined Tyre and
becoming the centre of the new commerce between Europe and the Arabian and
Indian East, the city grew in less than a century to be larger than Carthage;
and for some centuries more it was second only to Rome. Nominally a free
Greek city, Alexandria retained its senate to Roman times; and indeed the
judicial functions of that body were restored by Septimius Severus, after
temporary abolition by Augustus.
It was not only a center of Hellenism, but was also the greatest Jewish city
in the world. There the Septuagint was produced. The early Ptolemies kept it
in order and fostered the development of its museum into the leading Greek
university but they were careful to maintain the distinction of its
population into three nations, "Macedonian" (i.e. Greek), Jew and Egyptian.
One of the earliest inhabitants was the geometer and number-theorist Euclid.
From this division arose much of the later turbulence which began to
manifest itself under Ptolemy Philopater, who reigned 221–204 BC.
In ancient times, Alexandria was known for its lighthouse (one of the Seven
Wonders of the World) and its library (the largest in the world). Ongoing
maritime archaeology in the harbor of Alexandria, begun in 1994, is
revealing details of the Alexandria of the Ptolemaic dynasty.
Roman jurisdiction
The city passed formally under Roman jurisdiction in 80 BC, according to the
will of Ptolemy Alexander: but it had been under Roman influence for more
than a hundred years previously. Julius Caesar dallied with Cleopatra in
Alexandria in 47 BC and was mobbed by the rabble; his example was followed
by Marc Antony, for whose favor the city paid dear to Octavian, who placed
over it a prefect from the imperial household.
Alexandria seems from this time to have regained its old prosperity,
commanding, as it did, an important granary of Rome; this fact, doubtless,
was one of the chief reasons which induced Augustus to place it directly
under imperial power. In AD 215 the emperor Caracalla visited the city; and,
in order to repay some insulting satires that the inhabitants had made upon
him, he commanded his troops to put to death all youths capable of bearing
arms. This brutal order seems to have been carried out even beyond the
letter, for a general massacre was the result.
Even as its main historical importance had formerly sprung from pagan
learning, so now it acquired fresh importance as a centre of Christian
theology and church government. There Arianism was formulated and there
Athanasius, the great opponent of both Arianism and pagan reaction,
triumphed over both, establishing the Patriarch of Alexandria as a major
influence over Christianity for the next two centuries .
As native influences, however, began to reassert themselves in the Nile
valley, Alexandria gradually became an alien city, more and more detached
from Egypt; and, losing much of its commerce as the peace of the empire
broke up during the 3rd century AD, it declined fast in population and
splendour. The Brucheum and Jewish quarters were desolate in the 5th century,
and the central monuments, the Soma and Museum, fallen to ruin. On the
mainland, life seems to have centred in the vicinity of the Serapeum and
Caesareum; both become Christian churches. The Pharos and Heptastadium
quarters remained populous and intact.
In 616 it was taken by Khosrau II, king of Persia; and in 640 by the
Arabians, under the general Amr ibn al-As, after a siege that lasted
fourteen months. The city received no aid from Constantinople during that
time; Byzantine Emperor Heraclius was dead and the new Emperor Constantine
III was barely twelve years old. Notwithstanding the losses that the city
had sustained, Amr was able to write to his master, the caliph Omar, that he
had taken a city containing "4,000 palaces, 4,000 baths, 12,000 dealers in
fresh oil, 12,000 gardeners, 40,000 Jews who pay tribute, 400 theatres or
places of amusement."
The Library of Alexandria was destroyed about this time.
After Amr
Shortly after its capture, Alexandria again fell into the hands of the
Greeks, who took advantage of Amr's absence with the greater portion of his
army. On hearing what had happened, however, Amr returned, and quickly
regained possession of the city. About the year 646, Amr was deprived of his
government by the caliph Uthman ibn Affan . Amr was greatly beloved by the
Egyptians; they threatened such a revolt over this that the Greek emperor
was determined to reduce Alexandria.
The attempt proved successful. The caliph, perceiving his mistake,
immediately restored Amr, who, on his arrival in Egypt, drove the Greeks
within the walls of Alexandria, but was only able to capture the city after
a most obstinate resistance by the defenders. This so exasperated him that
he completely demolished its fortifications, although he seems to have
spared the lives of the inhabitants as far as lay in his power.
Alexandria now rapidly declined in importance. The building of Cairo in 969,
and, above all, the discovery of the route to the East by the Cape of Good
Hope in 1498, nearly ruined its commerce; the canal, which supplied it with
Nile water, became blocked; and although it remained a principal Egyptian
port, at which most European visitors in the Mameluke and Ottoman periods
landed, we hear little of it until about the beginning of the 19th century.
Alexandria figured prominently in the military operations of Napoleon's
Egyptian expedition of 1798. The French troops stormed the city on July 2,
1798, and it remained in their hands until the arrival of the British
expedition of 1801. The battle of Alexandria, fought on March 21 that year
between the French and the British, took place near the ruins of Nicopolis,
on the narrow spit of land between the sea and Lake Abukir.
The 1800s
During the anarchy which accompanied Ottoman rule in Egypt from first to
last, Alexandria sank to a small town of about 4,000 inhabitants, and it
owed its modern rennaissance solely to Mehemet Ali, who wanted a deep port
and naval station for his viceregal domain. He restored its water
communication with the Nile by making the Mahmudiya canal, finished in 1820;
and he established at Ras et-Tin his favorite residence. The old Eunostus
harbour became the port, and a flourishing city arose on the Pharos island
and the Heptastadion district, with outlying suburbs and villa residences
along the coast eastwards and the Mareotic shore.
Being the starting-point of the "overland route" to India, and the residence
of the chief foreign consuls, it quickly acquired a European character and
attracted not only French residents, but great numbers of Greeks, Jews and
Syrians. There most of the negotiations between the powers and Mehemet All
were conducted; from there started the Egyptian naval expeditions to Crete,
the Morea and Syria; and thither sailed the betrayed Ottoman fleet in 1839.
It was twice threatened by hostile fleets, the Greek in 1827 and the
combined British, French and Russian squadrons in 1828.
The latter withdrew on the viceroy's promise that Ibrahim should evacuate
the Morea. The fortifications were strengthened in 1841, and remained in an
antiquated condition until 1882, when they were renovated by Arabi Pasha.
Alexandria was connected with Cairo by railway in 1856.
Much favored by the earlier viceroys of Mehemet Ali's house, and removed
from the Mameluke troubles, Alexandria was the real capital of Egypt until
Said Pasha died there in 1863 and Ismail Pasha came into power. Though this
prince continued to develop the city, giving it a municipality in 1861 and
new harbour works in 1871-1878, he developed Cairo still more; and the
center of gravity definitely shifted to the inland capital.
Bombardment of 1882
Fate, however, again brought Alexandria to the front. After a mutiny of
soldiers there in 1881, the town was greatly excited by the arrival of an
Anglo-French fleet in May 1882, and on June 11 a terrible riot and massacre
took place, resulting in the death of four hundred Europeans.
Since satisfaction was not given for this and the forts were being
strengthened at the instigation of Arabi Pasha, the war minister, the
British admiral, Sir Frederick Beauchamp Seymour (afterwards Lord Alcester),
sent an ultimatum on July 10 and opened fire on the forts the next day. They
were demolished, but as no troops were landed immediately a fresh riot and
massacre ensued.
As Arabi did not submit, a British military expedition landed at Alexandria
on August 10, following which the British engaged in the occupation of the
whole country.
Under British control
Alexandria has greatly expanded since then. As the British consular report
for 1904 says, "Building ... for residential and other purposes proceeds
with almost feverish rapidity. The cost of living has doubled and the price
of land has risen enormously."
Alexandria was developed into a major Royal Navy base, with the strategic
Suez Canal to the east, it was the eastern Mediterranean Sea. During
theSecond World War and the North Africa Campaign of 1940 — 1943. The
decisive Battles of El Alamein were fought to the west.
The Egyptian Military Coup of 1952 saw Colonel Nasser take power and the
Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1954 made provision for the withdrawal of British
troops. |
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