|
|
CANADA
Canada, historically the Dominion of Canada, is
the northernmost country in North America. It is a decentralized federation
of 10 provinces and 3 territories, governed as a constitutional monarchy,
and formed in 1867 through an act of Confederation.
The capital of Canada is Ottawa, home of the
nation's parliament as well as the residences of the Governor General and
the Prime Minister. A former French and British colony, Canada is a member
of both La Francophonie and the Commonwealth of Nations.
Canada is a modern and technologically advanced country and is largely
energy self-sufficient due to its stores of fossil fuels, nuclear energy
generation, and hydroelectric power capabilities. Its economy has
traditionally relied heavily on a vast abundance of natural resources.
Although the modern Canadian economy has become widely diversified,
exploitation of natural resources remains an important driver of many
regional economies.
With a population one-tenth that of its southern neighbour, the United
States, Canada might be expected to have an economy one-tenth as large. In
practice, Canada's economic leverage usually exceeds this ratio. Conversely,
its military spending falls far short of matching the per capita spending of
the United States.
Since before it even gained independence, Canada has operated under the
principles of "peace, order, and good government."
Geography
Canada occupies more or less the northern half of the North American
continent. It is bordered by the United States to the south and to the
northwest (where it borders Alaska). The country stretches from the Atlantic
Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west. Canada also reaches the
Arctic Ocean in the north where Canada's territorial claim extends to the
North Pole.
Canada is the world's second-largest country in total area after Russia.
However, it has an extremely low population density of 3 people per square
kilometre as there are roughly 32 million Canadians, of whom 80% live within
200 kilometres of the American border. While Canada covers a larger
geographic area than the neighbouring United States it has only one-ninth of
the population. As mentioned, Canada's vast and rich territory has led to a
historical economic dependence on its natural resources.
The most fertile and heaviest-populated part of the country, the Great Lakes-Saint
Lawrence River Valley in the east, was the first to be settled by Europeans.
To the north of this region is the broad Canadian Shield, an area of rock
scoured clean by the last ice age, thinly soiled, rich in minerals, and
gouged with lakes and rivers - over 60% of the world's lakes are located in
Canada. The Canadian Shield encircles the immense Hudson Bay.
The Canadian Shield extends to the Atlantic Coast in Labrador, the mainland
part of the Province of Newfoundland and Labrador. The island of
Newfoundland, Canada's easternmost region, is at the mouth of the Gulf of
Saint Lawrence, the world's largest estuary. The Canadian Maritimes protrude
eastward from the southern coast of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, sandwiched
between the Gulf to the north and the Atlantic to the south. New Brunswick
and Nova Scotia are divided by the Bay of Fundy, an arm of the Atlantic that
experiences the world's highest tides.
To the west of Ontario, the broad, flat Canadian Prairies spread towards the
Rocky Mountains, which divide the provinces of Alberta and British Columbia.
Southern British Columbia enjoys a very temperate climate with much milder
winters than the rest of the country.
Northern Canadian vegetation tapers from coniferous forests to tundra and
finally to Arctic barrens in the far north. The northern Canadian mainland
is ringed with a vast archipelago containing some of the largest islands on
Earth.
Canada has a reputation for cold temperatures. Indeed, the winters can be
harsh in many regions of the country, with risks of blizzards and ice storms
and temperatures reaching lows of -30°C to -40°C. (Southwestern BC is a well-known
exception.) However, summers range from mild to quite hot, attaining highs
of over 30°C in Montreal and 15°C even in Iqaluit, Nunavut. The country
experiences four distinct seasons.
Origin of the name
The name Canada originated from a Huron-Iroquoian word, Kanata meaning "village"
or "settlement", referring to Stadacona, a settlement on the site of present-day
Quebec City. Maps made by early European explorers show that the name River
Canada was given to the Ottawa River, and the Saint Lawrence River below
Montreal. A plausible hypothesis is that the river was named for the village
on its banks, and the surrounding country for the river used to explore it.
In 1867 through confederation, the British North America Act created "one
Dominion under the Name of Canada." The term "Dominion" was chosen (rather
than "Kingdom") to avoid the possible antagonizing of anti-monarchist
sentiment in the United States and to reflect Canada's status as a self-governing
colony of the British Empire. Notwithstanding historical precedents for the
term "dominion", the country's name and motto are often linked to Ps 72:8
and Zech 9:10 "He shall have dominion also from sea to sea, and from the
river unto the ends of the earth."
Until the 1960s, the term Dominion of Canada was commonly used to identify
the country, after which time the Dominion Government began simply to use
the name "Canada" on all official state documents and treaties. This was to
recognize Canadian autonomy from the UK, though some critics insisted that
the country's proper name should continue to be regarded as "the Dominion of
Canada," even if it remained largely unused. The Canada Act 1982 refers
merely to "Canada" and the single name is the current official shortform and
longform (as well as bilingual) name in use. Later in 1982, this was
reflected in the renaming of the national holiday from Dominion Day to
Canada Day.
History
Canada, which has been inhabited by aboriginal peoples, known in Canada as
the First Nations, for about 10,000 years, was first visited by Europeans
around 1000, when the Vikings briefly settled at L'Anse aux Meadows in
Newfoundland. More permanent European visits came in the 16th and 17th
century, as the French settled there.
In 1763, at the end of the Seven Years' War, France chose to keep its
Caribbean Islands and to leave its North American colony, New France, to
Britain.
After the American Revolution, many British Loyalists settled in Canada.
On July 1, 1867, with the passing of the British North America Act, the
British government granted local self-government to a federation of four
provinces formed from three of its North American colonies, Canada, New
Brunswick, and Nova Scotia. The former Province (colony) of Canada formed
two provinces of the new Dominion of Canada, being partitioned into Quebec
and Ontario along the old boundary between Lower and Upper Canada. The term
Confederation refers to this act of union and is often used for the
resulting federation.
Other British colonies and territories soon joined Confederation; by 1880
Canada included all of its present area except for Newfoundland and Labrador
(which joined in 1949). Full control over the Dominion's affairs officially
came in 1931 with the Statute of Westminster, and in 1982 with the
patriation of Canada's constitution.
In the second half of the 20th century, some citizens of the mainly French-speaking
province of Quebec sought independence in two referendums held in 1980 and
1995. In both referendums, the separatist cause, lead by the Parti Quebecois,
was defeated with 60% and 50.6% opposed to independence, respectively.
Politics
Federal Government
Canada is a federation under a system of parliamentary democracy and a
constitutional monarchy. Its Head of State and Sovereign is Her Majesty
Queen Elizabeth II with the title of Queen of Canada. The Queen's
representative in Canada is the Governor General who is generally a retired
politician or other prominent Canadian appointed by the Queen on the advice
of the Prime Minister of Canada. The Governor General is a non-partisan
figure who fills the role of providing Royal Assent to bills passed by the
House of Commons and the Senate, reading the Speech from the Throne, signing
state documents, formally opening and ending sessions of Parliament, and
dissolving Parliament for an election. Both the Queen and the Governor
General are primarily figureheads, with little real power as they almost
always act on the advice of Canada's Head of Government, the Prime Minister,
who is also the government party leader who controls such tools of
governance as party discipline and patronage appointments.
Governor General of CanadaIt should be noted that the Constitution Act,
which contained procedures for amending the Constitution, was agreed to
during one night (known to Quebec nationalists as "Nuit des longs couteaux":
night of long knives — 1982), without the province of Quebec which refused
last-minute amendments that the provincial government believed diminished
the province's francophone characteristics into some multicultural
environment. Notably, the Constitution Act, 1982 contained a Charter of
Rights and Freedoms that countered Quebec's laws (Bill 101) regarding the
protection of the French language, which Quebec had declared to be the
official language of the province.
The legislative branch of government consists of the Parliament, including
the elected House of Commons and the Senate which consists of Senators
appointed until age 75 by the Prime Minister. The Senate is composed of 105
Senators — 24 from Ontario, 24 from Quebec, 24 from the Maritime provinces
(10 from Nova Scotia, 10 from New Brunswick, 4 from Prince Edward Island),
24 from the Western provinces (6 each from Manitoba, British Columbia,
Saskatchewan, and Alberta), 6 from Newfoundland and Labrador and one for
each territory (Northwest Territories, Yukon Territory, and Nunavut). Canada
has strict party discipline which gives the Prime Minister very high levels
of control over almost all legislation passed by Parliament.
The Prime Minister calls elections for the House of Commons at his or her
discretion, though they must occur no later than five years after the
previous one.
Prime Minister of CanadaThe Governor General formally appoints the Prime
Minister, who is usually the leader of the political party that holds the
most seats in the House of Commons. The Prime Minister in turn appoints the
Cabinet, drawn by convention from members of the Prime Minister's party in
the House of Commons and the Senate.
Canada has three main national parties, the centrist Liberal Party of Canada,
the right-of-centre Conservative Party of Canada, and the left-of-centre
democratic socialist New Democratic Party (NDP). A regional party, the Bloc
Québécois, holds many seats in Quebec; its agenda is separatist and
primarily social-democratic. Other smaller parties exist, but rarely have
been able to elect members to the House of Commons. Similarly, independent
candidates are rarely elected (Chuck Cadman was an exception in 2004).
The Liberals are the party of current Prime Minister Paul Martin, and his
predecessor Jean Chrétien who led for the last 10 years. The only other
party to form a government is the now-defunct Progressive Conservative
Party, which in December 2003 merged with the Canadian Alliance to form the
Conservative Party of Canada. In recent years Canada has come to be thought
as having a more left-wing political slant than the United States.
Canada's judical branch of government is composed of a variety of federal
and provincial level courts that deal with cases involving federal or
provincial realms of jurisdiction. Both federal and provincial cases can
ultimately by appealed to the Supreme Court of Canada. All judges in Canada
are appointed, with federal justices being chosen by the provincial premiers
and federal judges by the Prime Minister. Various non-governmental legal
bodies have historically played an advisory role in this process.
Canada is a member of the United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, La
Francophonie, NATO, the G8, and APEC.
Provinces and territories
Canada is divided into 10 provinces and 3 territories. The provinces have a
reasonably large amount of autonomy from the federal government, while the
territories have somewhat less.
The provinces are responsible for most of Canada's social programs (such as
healthcare, education, and welfare) and together collect more revenue than
the federal government, a fairly unique structure among federations in the
world. The federal government can initiate national policies that the
provinces can opt out of, but at a risk of losing federal money. Transfer
payments are made to ensure that reasonably uniform standards of services
are kept between the richer and poorer provinces. Criminal law is one of the
few areas that is strictly the responsibility of the federal government, and
crime and punishment is uniform throughout most of Canada. The provinces and
territories each have their own unicameral legislatures.
Provincial Governments
The ten provinces have unicameral, elected legislatures with governments
headed by a premier who is chosen in the same fashion as the federal prime
minister. Every province also has a figurehead lieutenant governor
representing the Queen, appointed by the Prime Minister.
Most provinces' political climates include provincial counterparts to the
three national federal parties. However, provincial parties are not normally
formally linked to the federal parties, with the exception of the NDP. Some
provinces have regional political parties, such as the Saskatchewan Party or
the Labrador Party.
The provincial political climate of Quebec is quite different, with the main
split being between separatism, represented by the Parti Québécois, and
federalism, represented by the Parti libéral du Québec. As interest in the
sovereignty debate diminishes, however, the relevance of this party division
is coming into question. Two smaller parties, the right-wing Action
démocratique du Québec (ADQ) and the left-wing Union des forces
progressistes (UFP), are trying to break into the two-party system and do
not focus primarily on the sovereignty question. However, of the two, only
the ADQ has yet elected members to the National Assembly (Quebec's
legislature).
Territorial governments
Territories have fewer political powers than provinces, having been created
by acts of Parliament rather than enshrined in the Constitution. As a result
of having fewer political powers, many people say that the Canadian
territories have not received proper and equal representation in the
Canadian Parliament.
The three territories' heads of state are termed commissioners. Though they
are analogous to the lieutenant-governors of the provinces, they are not
formal representatives of the Queen. They are appointed by the federal
government.
The Yukon has a unicameral legislature operated the same way as the
provincial legislatures, but the other two territories use a consensus
government system with no parties, in which each member runs as an
independent, and the premier is elected by and from the members.
Relations between the federal government and the territorial governments
have been tense. Many of the disputes between the two governments have been
between the usage of resources and funding. Even though the territories have
the highest per capita incomes in Canada, the poverty rate in the
territories has been constantly large owing to isolation, the extreme
difficulty and cost of supplying goods, the scarcity of jobs, and social
problems.
Economy
As an affluent, high-tech industrial society, Canada today closely resembles
the United States in its market-oriented economic system, pattern of
production, and high living standards. Since World War II, the impressive
growth of the manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has transformed the
nation from a largely rural economy into one primarily industrial and urban.
Energy self-sufficient, Canada has vast deposits of natural gas on the east
coast and in the three western provinces, and a plethora of other natural
resources. The 1989 Canada-US Free Trade Agreement (FTA) and 1994 North
American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) (which included Mexico) touched off a
dramatic increase in trade and economic integration with the US. As a result
of the close cross-border relationship, the economic downturn in the United
States in 2001 had an a negative impact on the Canadian economy, but less
than expected. Real growth averaged nearly 3% from 1993 to 2000, but
declined in 2001. As of 2003, unemployment was up, with contraction in the
manufacturing and natural resource sectors. Yet, Canada has successfully
avoided economic recession after 2001 and has maintained the best economic
growth rates in the G7 group of nations. With its great natural resources,
skilled labour force, and modern capital plant, Canada enjoys solid economic
prospects.
The city and harbour of Charlottetown, Prince Edward IslandTwo shadows loom,
the first being the continuing constitutional impasse between English- and
French-speaking areas, (see article: Politics of Canada) which has been
raising the possibility of a split in the federation. The ongoing
uncertainty creates confusion about who will be responsible for the Canadian
debt, what trading relationships will look like, and a host of other issues.
However, as fears of separation have waned, the economy has become stronger,
notably in Quebec.
Another long-term concern is fears of a flow south to the US of
professionals, referred to as the Brain Drain, lured by higher pay, lower
taxes, and high-tech opportunities. Simultaneously, a largely
under-recognized Brain Gain is occurring, as educated immigrants continue to
enter Canada in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. As in many western
countries, however, the benefits of this phenomenon are limited by problems
with acceptance of foreign qualifications; many educated and highly skilled
immigrants work in unskilled positions in Canada, because their credentials
are not recognized by government, employers, and some professional
organizations, such as the Canadian Medical Association, which forces
foreign-trained doctors to undertake extensive retraining to practise in
Canada.
Transparency International ranks Canada as the perceived 11th least corrupt
country in the world.
Languages
Canada's two official languages are English and French.
On July 7, 1969, French was made equal to English throughout the Canadian
federal government. This started a process that led to Canada redefining
itself as a bilingual and multicultural nation at the federal level.
The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms lays down that:
French and English are equal to each other as official languages;
debate in Parliament may take place in either official language;
laws shall be printed in both official languages, with equal authority;
anyone may deal with any court established by Parliament, in either official
language;
everyone has the right to receive services from the federal government in
his or her choice of official language;
members of a minority language group of one of the official languages (i.e.
French speakers in a majority English-speaking province, or vice versa) have
the right to have their children receive a public education in their
language, where numbers warrant.
At the provincial level, New Brunswick is the only officially bilingual
province, a status specifically guaranteed by the Charter of Rights, with
its citizens having the same language rights at the provincial level as all
citizens of Canada have at the federal level. While no other province is
officially bilingual, most provincial governments do offer some type of
service to their English or French minority populations.
The official language of Quebec is French, as defined by the province's
Charter of the French Language; this law lays out various protections for
the use of French as a vehicular language, but also provides certain rights
for English speakers and speakers of aboriginal languages. Quebec provides
most government services in both English and French.
French is mostly spoken in Quebec, Ontario, New Brunswick and southern
Manitoba. In the 2001 census, 6,864,615 people listed French as a first
language, of whom 85% lived in Quebec, and 17,694,835 people listed English
as a first language.
Languages other than the official languages are also important in Canada,
with 5,470,820 people listing a non-official language as a first language.
(The above three statistics include those who listed more than one first
language.) Among the most important non-official first language groups are
Chinese (853,745 first-language speakers), especially Cantonese (322,315);
Italian (469,485); and German (438,080).
Speakers of a great many aboriginal languages live in Canada; however, all
but a few of the aboriginal languages are in decline. The only aboriginal
languages that are believed to be sustainable at present are Cree (72,885
first-language speakers), Inuktitut (29,010 speakers), and Ojibwa.
Demographics
In the 2001 Canadian census, respondents reported their ethnicity using the
following self-identifications
Canadian (40.1%)
English (29.17%)
French (23.2%)
Scottish (14.03%)
Irish (12.90%)
German (9.25%)
Italian (4.29%)
Chinese (3.69%)
Ukrainian (3.61%)
First Nations (3.38%)
Dutch (3.12%)
Polish (2.76%)
East Indian (2.41%)
Black African (2.23%)
Norwegian (1.23%)
Portuguese (1.21%)
Welsh (1.18%)
Jewish (1.18%)
Russian (1.14%)
Filipino (1.11%)
Métis (1.04%)
Swedish (0.95%)
See also: List of Canadians by ethnicity
The total non-white population is 13% of the Canadian population.
Culture
While Canadian culture is heavily influenced by British and American culture
and traditions, it retains many unique characteristics. In the past few
decades, a more robust and distinct Canadian culture has developed,
partially because of the nationalism that pervaded Canada in the years
leading up to and following the Canadian Centennial in 1967.
The Canada-U.S. border is the world's longest undefended border, and the
United States and Canadian governments share a variety of close working
partnerships in matters of trade, economics, and legal concerns. As Canada
and the United States have grown closer, many Canadians have developed
complex feelings and concerns regarding what makes Canada a "distinct"
nation within North America. The large American cultural presence in Canada
has prompted some fears of a "cultural takeover," and has initiated the
establishment of many laws and government institutions to protect Canadian
culture. Much of Canadian culture remains defined in contrast to American
culture (See Canadian identity). For example, Canadians see their country as
a mosaic of unique immigrant cultures, a large picture made up of many
distinct pieces, rather than a melting-pot. Media outlets that receive
government funding such as the CBC attempt to promote such a view of Canada,
although in recent years critics have accused Canadian "cultural"
programming as being excessively political.
Canadian culture was a topic of international discussion in 2003, when
Canada refused to join the US-led 2003 Iraq War, moved toward legalizing
same-sex marriage, and took steps towards decriminalizing the possession of
small amounts of marijuana. Many international observers saw these
developments as distinguishing Canada as more socially liberal than its
southern neighbour. Needless to say, within Canada itself, such notions of
Canada being a more fundamentally "left wing" country than the US tend to be
more widely embraced by political parties on the left than those on the
right. Such liberal social policies can probably best be tied to the
political dominance of the Liberal Party of Canada over national debate
within the last decade.
In terms of national symbols and emblems, the use of the maple leaf as a
Canadian symbol dates back to the early 18th century and is depicted on its
current and previous flags and coat of arms. Canada is known for its vast
forests and mountain ranges (including the Rocky Mountains) and the wild
animals that reside within them, such as moose, beavers, and grizzly bears.
Canada is also well-known for the Royal Canadian Mounted Police force, and
products made from the country's natural resources, such as maple syrup.
National anthem and royal anthem
Canada's national anthem is "O Canada". Although it was first performed on
June 24, 1880, at a Saint-Jean-Baptiste Day banquet in Quebec City, it did
not become Canada's official national anthem until July 1, 1980. Over the
preceding 70 years, "O Canada", "God Save the Queen" and "The Maple Leaf
Forever" had competed as unofficial national anthems, but by the 1960s "O
Canada" had emerged as the clear favourite. When it was made the official
anthem, most Canadians were surprised to learn that it did not already have
such status.
"God Save the Queen" is now Canada's royal anthem. It is officially played
in the presence of the Queen or other members of the royal family. The first
six bars are also used as part of the Vice-Regal Salute, which is played in
the presence of the Governor General. Out of tradition, "God Save the Queen"
is often sung at the end of extremely formal state occasions (e.g., state
funerals, and Remembrance Day services). It is also played (but not sung) at
many military events, and some Universities close their convocations with
it. Up until the 1980s, it was also common for elementary schools in many
regions to close school assembies with "God Save the Queen" but this is no
longer the case. As with Britain, the song becomes "God Save the King" when
circumstances on the throne warrant it.
|
|
